"In the seventh month, on the first day of the month, shall be a solemn rest unto you, a day of memorial with horn-blowing, a holy assembly." Leviticus 23:24
"... This day is holy unto the Lord your God; mourn not, nor weep... Then he (Ezra) said unto them: Go your way, eat the fat and drink the sweet, and send portions unto him for whom nothing is prepared; for this day is holy unto our Lord; neither be grieved; for the joy of the Lord is your strength." Nehemiah 8:9-10
Rosh Hashanah (literally "Head of the Year") is also known by a variety of names including Yom ha-Din (Day of Judgment), Yom ha-Zikkaron (Day of Memorial) and Yom Teruah (Day of the Shofar Sounding). Although Rosh Hashanah traditionally marks the creation of the world, the two-day holiday actually falls at the start of the seventh month; the first month of the Jewish calendar is Nisan, falling at the onset of spring and connected to the exodus from Egypt.
The period from Rosh Hashanah through Yom Kippur is called Yamim Horaim (Days of Awe), ten days of concentrated introspection, prayer and repentance. According to Jewish tradition, it is during these days that the fate of all people is determined for the coming year. At this time of the year, the plaintive sound of the shofar (ram's horn) blasts forth, touching our primeval essence and calling a person to take stock of his life. It is a time meant to inspire people to strive to be the best that they can be.
Obviously, the nature of Rosh Hashanah is vastly different from the frivolity associated with the American concept of New Years. Yet, despite the poignancy of the day, Rosh Hashanah is not a time of melancholy or lamentations. For the Jewish concept of teshuvah (roughly translated as repentance, but actually meaning "return") is one of inner transformation, not of self-punishment or asceticism. As Ezra instructed the people in his time, Rosh Hashanah is an occasion of great joy and feasting.
Although each Jewish holiday has its own unique fare, none has developed as many symbolic foods as Rosh Hashanah. At this time of the year, the performance of symbolic acts is of special value and food plays a vital role in reflecting on the past and pondering the future.
An ancient custom is to eat a new fruit -- one not yet sampled that season -- on the second night of Rosh Hashanah while reciting the blessing Shehechiyanu (“Who has preserved us”).
The Talmud mentioned five foods to eat on Rosh Hashanah -- gourds, fenugreek, leeks, beet greens/chard, and dates. Each of these foods was specified because of a phonological similarity between its name and another word, thereby signifying a wish for the coming year. The Hebrew word for “gourd” (kraa) is similar to yikara (“to be called out”), reflecting that our good deeds be called out at this time of judgment. The Aramaic word rubiya (fenugreek) is similar to the word for increase/multiply (yirbu). However, rubiya is commonly mistranslated as black-eyed peas, which is actually lubiya/loubia (which derives from Libyan) in Aramaic as well as Arabic. Since fresh black-eyed peas become available just before Rosh Hashanah and its name was mistakenly confused with rubiya, black-eyed peas became traditional among Sephardim. The Hebrew word for “leek” (karti) is similar to yikartu (“to be cut off”), signifying that our enemies should be cut off. The Talmudic term silka denotes both what we now call beet green as well as chard (leaf beet/Swiss chard), the two close relatives nearly identical in Talmudic times. In modern Hebrew, to differentiate the two, chard is called alei selek/selek alim (leaves of selek) and beets are technically selek adom (red selek). In any case, silka is reminiscent of the Hebrew she’yistalqu (“that they will be removed”), referring to our enemies. Similarly, tamar (the Hebrew word for “date”) sounds like yitamu (“to be removed”).
Over the course of time, others foods were . Sephardim serve lung (re’ah in Hebrew) while reciting re’ah na bee’onyainu (“Behold us in our affliction”). During the medieval period, carrots reached the West, its Hebrew name becoming gezer, which also means “tear,” as in "tear up any bad decrees,” as well as “decree,” signifying shelo yeehyu gezerot ra’ot olainu (“May there be no evil decrees against us”). In addition, the carrot’s Yiddish name is mehren ("to multiply" or "increase"). The carrot has several other attributes: It is sweet and when sliced, its shape resembles golden coins.
The Machzor Vitry (a Siddur compiled c. 1100 by Rabbi Simcha ben Shumuel, a student of Rashi, of Vitry-en-Perthois in northern France) records, “The residents of France have the custom to eat on Rosh Hashanah red apples [probably because they are sweeter than green ones]. And in Provence they eat white grapes and white figs and the head of a sheep. Every thing new and bright and good for a good sign for all Israel.” Pointedly, future generations of Ashkenazim adopted the French custom of eating apples, which later in the Zohar became associated with God’s presence, comparable to “an apple orchard.” This would lead to the most popular and widespread Ashkenazic Rosh Hashanah tradition -- at the beginning of the evening meal the dipping of apple slices in honey while reciting the phrase, "May it be Your will to renew on us a good and sweet year." The custom of apples dipped in honey was first mentioned by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher in his legal compendium Arbah Turim (c. 1300 CE), citing it as a German tradition. Around the same time, apples in honey was mentioned by Rabbi Alexander Susslein of Frankfort, Germany in his work Sefer Agudah, reflecting that it had become a widespread practice in Germany by this time.
Later, other sources connected it to the incident of Jonathan the son of King Saul, who had not heard his father’s oath cursing anyone eating “vayehi hayom (it was that day),” and dipped his staff into and ate from the yarat-ha-devash, necessitating his own death before being pardoned (I Samuel 14:27). The term yarat-ha-devash means “the honey of bees’ honeycomb”; Yarat (derived from the root “rough, rugged”) means “forest, woods,” connoting “honey of the woods,” the bees establishing their hives in trees, to differentiate it from the primary form of devash in biblical Israel, date syrup. According to tradition, “vayehi hayom (it was that day)” in the Bible always refers to Rosh Hashanah, this incident serving as an inspiration for dipping an apple slice into honey on that night, appealing to God to pardon us.
The custom of dipping apples subsequently spread throughout the Ashkenazic world and to some Sephardim, although other Sephardim have the custom of cooking apples in sugar and Yemenites typically do not have the custom. Calcutta Jews serve apples cooked in honey and flavored with rose water.
Whereas apples emerged as the predominant Rosh Hashanah fruit among Ashkenazim, for Mizrachim and Sephardim that role was more often filled by the quince, the yellow-skinned fruit coming into season around the holiday. Persians cooks quinces with meat and onions. Moroccans combine it with carrots and prunes. Most often, it is combined with sugar or honey in a variety of confections and cakes. Sephardim poach them in a syrup, in some homes served as the first course of the Rosh Hashanah dinner.
In this vein, honey and other sweet foods also became traditional Rosh Hashanah foods. As with a number of symbolic foods, the custom of apples in honey has many layers of meaning: Honey is a food in the Bible associated with the Land of Israel; honey is also an ancient symbol of immortality and truth; in mystical literature, an apple orchard is frequently pictured as a symbol of the Divine Presence; and the sweetness of both the honey and apple serves as a wish for a sweet year to come. The first piece of challah -- which is generally baked in a round shape for the holiday -- is dipped into honey instead of the customary salt, a custom that is continued in many households until after Sukkot.
Dessert offers an excellent opportunity to enjoy this custom. Ashkenazim traditionally serve a honey cake called lekach (literally "portion"), signifying the wish that "we be given a salutary portion," and honey-cooked balls of dough called teiglach. Sephardim make honey-soaked cakes, such as tispishti. Syrian Jews enjoy date-filled cookies called ras ib adjweh. Hungarian Rosh Hashanah desserts generally continue the apple theme in the form of apple cake, pie or compote. Moroccan Jews often serve poached quinces. Indian Jews prepare a coconut milk halva garnished with nuts and raisins.
Other prominent themes of Rosh Hashanah foods are symbols of fertility and plenty, including seeds and fruits and vegetables that contain many seeds, such as pumpkin and squash. Fruits, due to their sweetness, are a natural Rosh Hashanah food and those fruits mentioned in the Bible -- apples, grapes, figs, dates, melons, and pomegranates -- have a special place in Jewish tradition. Dates are a symbol not only of beauty but that people should stand as straight and tall as a date palm. The many seeds of the pomegranate symbolize both fertility and good deeds, “May our merits multiply like pomegranate seeds.” Many Greek Jews serve quince or rose preserves at the start of the meal.
In some homes, the head of a fish or lamb is displayed on the table, signifying the hope that in the coming year we will be the "rosh (head) and not the tail." Both of these foods also contain other meanings: Fish is a symbol of fruitfulness (“May we be fruitful and multiply like fish”); the Jewish people; and the Leviathan to be served at the feast following the arrival of the messiah. Most Jewish communities serve some form of fish at the holiday meal. Eastern Europeans serve gefilte fish, usually an appropriately sweetened version. Sweet-and-sour fish, usually containing raisins, is a traditional dish in Germany, Alsace and Italy. Indian Jews serve fish rubbed with masala and baked in a tandoor. Lamb is a reminder of the ram substituted for Isaac as a sacrifice, which occurred on Rosh Hashanah.
It is the custom in Jerusalem to serve as many symbolic foods as possible, reciting a prayer and explanation with each one. Many Sephardic homes feature a cornucopia of symbolic fruits and vegetables, customarily served in a basket called a trashkal, while others arrange seven symbolic foods on a plate, akin to a Seder plate, called Sheva Brachot (“Seven Blessings”). The head of the family removes one item at a time and recites an appropriate verse and/or a “yehi ratztone (May it be Your will…). The first symbolic food is usually a date, which in some Sephardic homes is dipped into a mixture of ground sesame seeds, anise seeds, and sugar, called “yitamu.” Next is the pomegranate, followed by an apple, typically dipped into honey. These are followed by a leek, spinach or chard, and finally the head of a fish or lamb.
In the Maghreb, the evening is organized into a Seder, an ordered succession of disparate tastes, smells, and colors. First the assemblage samples a vegetable or usually several vegetables representing the removal of enemies, notably beet greens, spinach (misnamed selek), and pumpkin (called salka in Judeo-Arabic). Next everyone is given a piece of lamb or cow’s head “to be like a head,” then a piece of calf’s heart, “to open the heart to the Bible.” The next subject is fertility and plenty, represented by beans, seeds (especially sesame), and fish. Afterward follows the biblical fruits – pomegranates (may our merits be plentiful), dates (may the righteous flourish), then figs (a sweet year). The wish for an easy year is represented by a piece of cooked lung. Next comes the biblical olive. Finally, an apple slice is dipped into honey.
There are also foods traditionally avoided on Rosh Hashanah.
Eastern Europeans eschew nuts as well as any sour food, even sweet-and-sour dishes. In north Africa, black foods, a color associated with mourning, -- including olives, raisins, eggplant, coffee, and chocolate -– are banned from the table, although some permit these items on the second day. Iraqi Jews avoid fish, since its Hebrew name dag is similar to the Hebrew da'ag ("to worry").
Among the most popular and widespread Ashkenazic Rosh Hashanah traditions is at the beginning of the evening meal the dipping of apple slices in honey while reciting the phrase, "May it be Your will to renew on us a good and sweet year." The custom was first mentioned by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher in Orach Chayim (#583) of his Arbah Turim (c. 1300 CE), citing it as a German tradition. Jonathan the son of King Saul, who had not heard his father’s oath cursing anyone eating “vayehi hayom (it was that day),” dipped his staff into and ate from the yarat-ha-devash, necessitating his own death before being pardoned (I Samuel 14:27). The term yarat-ha-devash means “the honey of bees’ honeycomb”; Yarat (derived from the root “rough, rugged”) means “forest, woods,” connoting “honey of the woods,” the bees establishing their hives in trees, to differentiate it from the primary form of devash in biblical Israel, date syrup. According to tradition, “vayehi hayom (it was that day)” in the bible always refers to Rosh Hashanah, serving as an inspiration for dipping an apple slice into honey on that night, appealing to God to pardon us.
The custom subsequently spread throughout the Ashkenazic world and to some Sephardim. As with a number of symbolic foods, this custom has many layers of meaning: Honey is a food in the Bible associated with the Land of Israel; honey is also an ancient symbol of immortality and truth; in mystical literature, an apple orchard is frequently pictured as a symbol of the Divine Presence; and the sweetness of both the honey and apple serves as a wish for a sweet year to come. Calcutta Jews serve apples cooked in honey and flavored with rose water. The first piece of challah -- which is generally baked in a round shape for the holiday -- is dipped into honey instead of the customary salt, a custom that is continued in many households until after Sukkot.
The first piece of challah -- which is generally baked in a round shape for the holiday -- is dipped into honey instead of the customary salt, a custom that is continued in many households until after Sukkot.
Certainly, the most popular and widespread Rosh Hashanah tradition is the dipping of apple slices in honey while reciting the phrase, "May it be Your will to renew on us a good and sweet year." As with a number of symbolic foods, this custom has many layers of meaning: Honey is a food in the Bible associated with the Land of Israel; honey is also an ancient symbol of immortality and truth; in mystical literature, an apple orchard is frequently pictured as a symbol of the Divine Presence; the Song of Songs (2:3) attests to the apple's sweetness and Proverbs (25:11) to its beauty; and the sweetness of both the honey
and apple serves as a wish for a sweet year to come. Calcutta Jews serve apples cooked in honey and flavored with rose water.
In this vein, sweet foods are one of the most popular Rosh Hashanah symbols and dishes are often sweetened, particularly with honey. Of course, dessert offers an excellent opportunity to enjoy this custom. Ashkenazim traditionally serve a honey cake called lekach (literally "portion," signifying the wish that "We be given a salutary portion") and honey-cooked balls of dough called teiglach. Sephardim make honey-soaked cakes such as tispishti. Syrian Jews enjoy date-filled cookies called ras ib adjweh. Hungarian Rosh Hashanah desserts generally continue the apple theme in the form of apple cake, pie or compote. Moroccan Jews often serve poached quinces. Indian Jews prepare a coconut milk halva garnished with nuts and raisins.
Fruits, due to their sweetness, are a natural Rosh Hashanah food and those fruits mentioned in the Bible -- apples, grapes, figs, dates, melons and pomegranates -- have a special place in Jewish tradition. Dates are a symbol not only of beauty but that people should stand as straight and tall as a date palm. The many seeds of the pomegranate symbolize both fertility and good deeds (“May our merits multiply like pomegranate seeds.”). Many Greek Jews serve quince or rose preserves at the start of the meal. The Bene Israel of India prepare a wheat, fruit and nut halvah. It is an ancient custom to eat a new fruit -- one not yet eaten that season -- on the second night of Rosh Hashanah. In many Sephardic homes, a cornucopia of symbolic fruits and vegetables are served in a basket called a trashkal. The head of the family then removes each item, one at a time, and recites the appropriate verse.
A similarity in names is a common source of Rosh Hashanah symbols. The word for beets greens (selek) is reminiscent of the blessing she'yistalqu oyevainu ("to remove our enemies"). Similarly, spinach or Swiss chard, silki ("remove") in Aramaic, both express the wish of removal of our enemies. The Hebrew word for leek is karti ("cut off"), signifying that our enemies should be cut off. The Hebrew word for gourd is kraa ("tear"), expressing the hope that any unfavorable judgment against us be torn up. Tamar, the Hebrew word for date, sounds like yitamu ("be removed"). In the same vein, the Hebrew word for carrot gezer means “tear” ("tear up any bad decrees”) as well as “decree” (shelo yeehyu gezerot ra’ot olainu “May there be no evil decrees against us”). The carrot has several other attributes: It is sweet; its name in Yiddish is mehren ("to multiply" or "increase"); and when sliced, its shape resembles golden coins. Sephardim serve lung (re’ah in Hebrew) while reciting re’ah na bee’onyainu (“Behold us in our affliction.”).
Another prominent theme of Rosh Hashanah foods is one of fruitfulness. Beans, which grow profusely, are a popular symbol of abundance. The Aramaic word for fenugreek, rubiya or lubiya, means abundance and increase (yirbu). Seeds -- particularly sesame and poppy seeds -- are another symbol of fruitfulness and used in many ways on this holiday, most commonly sprinkled on challahs. Moroccan Jews dip dates in sesame or anise seeds. Yemenites use fenugreek seeds (rubiya in Hebrew), in many guises (she’yerbi zekhuyotainu “May our merits multiply.”). Gourds and squash, which contain many seeds, are also ancient symbols of fruitfulness and abundance.
In some homes, the head of a fish or lamb is displayed on the table, signifying the hope that in the coming year we will be the "rosh (head) and not the tail" (the reverse of Deuteronomy 28:44). Both of these foods also contain other meanings: Fish is a symbol of fruitfulness (“May we be fruitful and multiply like fish”); the Jewish people; and the Leviathan to be served at the feast following the arrival of the messiah. Lamb is a reminder of the ram substituted for Isaac as a sacrifice. Most Jewish communities serve some form of fish at the holiday meal. Eastern Europeans serve gefilte fish, usually an appropriately sweetened version. Sweet-and-sour fish, usually containing raisins, is a traditional dish in Germany, Alsace and Italy. Indian Jews serve fish rubbed with masala and baked in a tandoor. Ironically, Iraqi Jews avoid fish, since its Hebrew name dag is similar to da'ag ("to worry").
There are other foods traditionally avoided as well. In Eastern Europe, nuts as well as any sour food, even sweet-and-sour dishes, are banned from the table. In North Africa, black foods are eschewed on the first day but permitted on the second. For this reason golden raisins and green olives are preferred over black varieties.
